Bardic Divas
Women Musicians of Central Asia
The vast majority of the population in Central Asia considers themselves to be Islamic, in both the religious and cultural sense. The gendering of performance, only one of many examples of gendering originating from religion, is a traditional practice taken from Islam that has manifested itself in the form of separate festivities for men and women. However, a distinction must be made between the performance styles of the urban and nomadic populations of Central Asia. Given their smaller communities and close living quarters, gendering of performance is less strict among nomadic populations. On the other hand, urban dwellers are accustomed to separating the genders by having female performers at female festivities and male performers at male festivities.
Central Asia was under the rule of Czarist Russia during the 19th century and the Soviet Union during the 20th century. During these periods, the ruling parties altered many aspects of indigenous culture in the region, beginning with the arbitrary borders that were created for manufactured nation states (Levin, Fools 3). Large numbers of nomadic peoples were forced into sedentary city life and, in the process, existing divisions between male and female were blurred; these efforts were part of the eventual goal of the Soviet Union to create one large class of working people, the proletariat. This goal was in addition to the Soviet vision of a secular society, the influence of which has been gradually replacing the Islamic ideals that were historically so strong in urban areas. Nomadic populations tended to have shamanistic and animistic belief systems; epic songs containing shamanistic elements were censored by the Soviets (During 144).
Attempts to “civilize” the population of Central Asia in the European tradition, the manner deemed more evolutionarily advanced by the new government, were made by the Soviet Union during the 20th century. Musicians from the region were either sent to Europe to be educated or sent to conservatories in Central Asia that were staffed by musicians who had been trained in Europe. Central Asia’s increasing exposure to the Western world helped to further integrate ideals that diverged from traditional Islamic culture and religion.
While the Soviet Union was collapsing in the early 1990s, the states of Central Asia were facing many challenges related to the protracted process of gaining independence. These challenges were, and continue to be, reflected in the cultures of the Central Asian states (Sultanova 133). The resulting globalization and influence from the Western world caused changes in the festivities of Central Asia. European-style celebrations that include both sexes are becoming increasingly popular. Nevertheless, these mixed-sex celebrations are not replacements of traditional gendered celebrations, but rather extensions of them (Levin, Garland 898). Simultaneously, an Islamic revival took place beginning in 1991 which led to the return of many types of religious music that had been forgotten or deemed illegal under the Soviet regime (Djumaev 946-947).
The gender politics of the Soviet Union included women in areas of life that tradition typically excluded them from, such as the work force and the performing arts. However, even before this shift during the 20th century, women challenged the restrictions placed on them in areas of musical performance. According to Kazakh history, in the 1870s, an aitys (singing contest) transpired between two bards, one male and one female. Although Birzhan-sal, the male bard, won the contest, the courage that was displayed by Sara Tastanbekova, the female bard, has been immortalized as an inspiration to future generations of women musicians (Levin, Senarslan, and Dordjieva 12).
Since the occupation of Central Asia by the Soviet Union, larger numbers of female entertainers have begun performing repertoire that was previously reserved only for male entertainers. Some examples of this repertoire can be found in the Kazakh genres of zhyrau and sal or seri. Zhyrau (zhyr translates to “song” in Kazakh) are epic poems sung with a guttural voice that depict legends and heroes. Sal or seri are lyrical songs that date back to the composers and performers of the 19th century.
The ashiqs of Azerbaijan have excluded women from their ranks since the origination of the genre around the 15th-16th centuries. During the 18th century, women began to rebel by learning to play the saz (long-necked lute with metal strings) and competing in deyishmes, improvised poetry competitions that determine the worthiness of the participants. This expanded the repertoire of women musicians to include the popular and exalted ashiq genre, not just the music played at all-female weddings and ceremonies. The country of Azerbaijan remains proud of its enduring female musicians and poets who are among the best upholders the ashiq tradition (Levin, Senarslan, and Dordjieva 38).
The people of the Khorezm region in northwestern Uzbekistan have a tradition of female entertainers, known as khalfas, who perform from a repertoire of spirited and amusing songs. Khalfas traditionally perform for other women at various social functions, mostly weddings. Usually from humble backgrounds, khalfas were frequently crippled or blind (Levin, Garland 899). Originally only accompanied by percussion instruments, the garmon (small accordion) entered into use during the 20th century and has become indispensable to khalfa accompaniments (Levin, Senarslan, and Dordjieva 20). Epic poems in Khorezm are always sung using intricate melodies, as opposed to the recitative style used for epic poems in other regions of Uzbekistan (Karomatov 51).
Central Asia was under the rule of Czarist Russia during the 19th century and the Soviet Union during the 20th century. During these periods, the ruling parties altered many aspects of indigenous culture in the region, beginning with the arbitrary borders that were created for manufactured nation states (Levin, Fools 3). Large numbers of nomadic peoples were forced into sedentary city life and, in the process, existing divisions between male and female were blurred; these efforts were part of the eventual goal of the Soviet Union to create one large class of working people, the proletariat. This goal was in addition to the Soviet vision of a secular society, the influence of which has been gradually replacing the Islamic ideals that were historically so strong in urban areas. Nomadic populations tended to have shamanistic and animistic belief systems; epic songs containing shamanistic elements were censored by the Soviets (During 144).
Attempts to “civilize” the population of Central Asia in the European tradition, the manner deemed more evolutionarily advanced by the new government, were made by the Soviet Union during the 20th century. Musicians from the region were either sent to Europe to be educated or sent to conservatories in Central Asia that were staffed by musicians who had been trained in Europe. Central Asia’s increasing exposure to the Western world helped to further integrate ideals that diverged from traditional Islamic culture and religion.
While the Soviet Union was collapsing in the early 1990s, the states of Central Asia were facing many challenges related to the protracted process of gaining independence. These challenges were, and continue to be, reflected in the cultures of the Central Asian states (Sultanova 133). The resulting globalization and influence from the Western world caused changes in the festivities of Central Asia. European-style celebrations that include both sexes are becoming increasingly popular. Nevertheless, these mixed-sex celebrations are not replacements of traditional gendered celebrations, but rather extensions of them (Levin, Garland 898). Simultaneously, an Islamic revival took place beginning in 1991 which led to the return of many types of religious music that had been forgotten or deemed illegal under the Soviet regime (Djumaev 946-947).
The gender politics of the Soviet Union included women in areas of life that tradition typically excluded them from, such as the work force and the performing arts. However, even before this shift during the 20th century, women challenged the restrictions placed on them in areas of musical performance. According to Kazakh history, in the 1870s, an aitys (singing contest) transpired between two bards, one male and one female. Although Birzhan-sal, the male bard, won the contest, the courage that was displayed by Sara Tastanbekova, the female bard, has been immortalized as an inspiration to future generations of women musicians (Levin, Senarslan, and Dordjieva 12).
Since the occupation of Central Asia by the Soviet Union, larger numbers of female entertainers have begun performing repertoire that was previously reserved only for male entertainers. Some examples of this repertoire can be found in the Kazakh genres of zhyrau and sal or seri. Zhyrau (zhyr translates to “song” in Kazakh) are epic poems sung with a guttural voice that depict legends and heroes. Sal or seri are lyrical songs that date back to the composers and performers of the 19th century.
The ashiqs of Azerbaijan have excluded women from their ranks since the origination of the genre around the 15th-16th centuries. During the 18th century, women began to rebel by learning to play the saz (long-necked lute with metal strings) and competing in deyishmes, improvised poetry competitions that determine the worthiness of the participants. This expanded the repertoire of women musicians to include the popular and exalted ashiq genre, not just the music played at all-female weddings and ceremonies. The country of Azerbaijan remains proud of its enduring female musicians and poets who are among the best upholders the ashiq tradition (Levin, Senarslan, and Dordjieva 38).
The people of the Khorezm region in northwestern Uzbekistan have a tradition of female entertainers, known as khalfas, who perform from a repertoire of spirited and amusing songs. Khalfas traditionally perform for other women at various social functions, mostly weddings. Usually from humble backgrounds, khalfas were frequently crippled or blind (Levin, Garland 899). Originally only accompanied by percussion instruments, the garmon (small accordion) entered into use during the 20th century and has become indispensable to khalfa accompaniments (Levin, Senarslan, and Dordjieva 20). Epic poems in Khorezm are always sung using intricate melodies, as opposed to the recitative style used for epic poems in other regions of Uzbekistan (Karomatov 51).
Much of the music in nomadic cultures is based on epic poetry with strong narrative and descriptive elements. Epic songs, some of which last up to thirty times the duration of Homer’s Iliad, are performed by soloists or small ensembles. These epics tell stories of love, magic, and heroes that come from mystical worlds. Arguably the greatest Kyrgyz epic, named after its hero, Manas is a comprehensive collection of every Kyrgyz myth, folktale, and legend (Köçümkulkïzï). Female musicians are still excluded from participating in roles belonging to other nomadic genres, such as the manaschi (reciter) of Manas (Levin, Senarslan, and Dordjieva 15).
The nomadic groups of Central Asia include the Kalmyks, Kazakhs, and Kyrgyz. Aqyns, the Kazakh and Kyrgyz term for bards, perform almost exclusively as soloists. Some sing a cappella, others sing and accompany themselves on the dombra or dutar (long-necked lutes), and some play instrumental pieces on long-necked lutes, fiddles, flutes, zithers, or jaw harps. Aqyns are virtually always male, but females also participate in this traditional genre in very small numbers (Levin, Senarslan, and Dordjieva 14).
The nomadic groups of Central Asia include the Kalmyks, Kazakhs, and Kyrgyz. Aqyns, the Kazakh and Kyrgyz term for bards, perform almost exclusively as soloists. Some sing a cappella, others sing and accompany themselves on the dombra or dutar (long-necked lutes), and some play instrumental pieces on long-necked lutes, fiddles, flutes, zithers, or jaw harps. Aqyns are virtually always male, but females also participate in this traditional genre in very small numbers (Levin, Senarslan, and Dordjieva 14).
Instruments
Kamancha
from http://www.nakhchivan.az/portal-en/xal-alet.htm
The kamancha is a bowed instrument that originally had three silk strings, but has evolved over time to have four metal strings. Its resonating chamber is made of wood and covered with animal skin, usually from a lamb.
Balaban
from http://plagiarism-az.com/articles/29/1/
The balaban is a double reed instrument, similar to an oboe, made from mulberry wood. Balaban is a combination of two Azerbaijani words, bala and ban, that translate to "a dismal sound".
Saz
from http://www.nakhchivan.az/portal-en/xal-alet.htm
The saz is a wooden long-necked fretted lute with varying numbers of
metal strings. It is a common instrument among the ashiqs of Turkey
and Azerbaijan.
Bibliography
Djumaev, Alexander. “Sacred Music and Chant in Islamic Central Asia.” The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 6: The Middle East. New York: Routledge, 2002. 935-947.
During, Jean. “Authority and Music in the Cultures of Inner Asia.” Ethnomusicology Forum 14, no. 2 (November 2005).
Karomatov, Faizullah. “On the Regional Styles of Uzbek Music.” Translated by Mark Slobin. Asian Music 4, no. 1 (1972).
Köçümkulkïzï, Elmira, trans. “The Kyrgyz Epic Manas.” The Silkroad Foundation. The Silkroad Foundation, 2009. Web. http://tinyurl.com/6vxbncr (accessed May 24, 2012).
Levin, Theodore. “Central Asia: Overview.” The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 6: The Middle East. New York: Routledge, 2002. 895-906.
_____________. The Hundred Thousand Fools of God: Musical Travels in Central Asia (and Queens, New York). Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996.
Levin, Theodore, Anna Senarslan, and Ghilyana Dordjieva. “Bardic Divas: Women’s Voices in Central Asia.” Liner notes. Music of Central Asia, Vol. 4: Bardic Divas: Women’s Voices in Central Asia. CD. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings, 2007.
Sultanova, Razia. “Music and Identity in Central Asia: Introduction.” Ethnomusicology Forum 14, no. 2 (November 2005).
2012: Jazmin Aliakbari and Erik Nieland.
During, Jean. “Authority and Music in the Cultures of Inner Asia.” Ethnomusicology Forum 14, no. 2 (November 2005).
Karomatov, Faizullah. “On the Regional Styles of Uzbek Music.” Translated by Mark Slobin. Asian Music 4, no. 1 (1972).
Köçümkulkïzï, Elmira, trans. “The Kyrgyz Epic Manas.” The Silkroad Foundation. The Silkroad Foundation, 2009. Web. http://tinyurl.com/6vxbncr (accessed May 24, 2012).
Levin, Theodore. “Central Asia: Overview.” The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 6: The Middle East. New York: Routledge, 2002. 895-906.
_____________. The Hundred Thousand Fools of God: Musical Travels in Central Asia (and Queens, New York). Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996.
Levin, Theodore, Anna Senarslan, and Ghilyana Dordjieva. “Bardic Divas: Women’s Voices in Central Asia.” Liner notes. Music of Central Asia, Vol. 4: Bardic Divas: Women’s Voices in Central Asia. CD. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings, 2007.
Sultanova, Razia. “Music and Identity in Central Asia: Introduction.” Ethnomusicology Forum 14, no. 2 (November 2005).
2012: Jazmin Aliakbari and Erik Nieland.